Research Projects: 5 Media Research

Research Brief 5

Teenagers and the Media: A Media Analysis of Sexual Content on Television

This document outlines issues to be considered in a media analysis of television programmes viewed by teenagers, aiming to identify and examine sexual dialogue and behaviours.

Background to this research:
There appears to be a shortage of research in the Irish context analysing the social construction of sex and sexuality by various media genres. Much of this has been studied either in the US or UK. Most of the research reviewed in this document is US based.

Many teenagers report that they do not get adequate information about sex from parents or from school during adolescence (Brown, Greenberg and Buerkel-Rothfuss, 1993). Not surprisingly, media portrayals may fill this gap as the most readily available alternative. More than half (51%) of adolescents cite television as an important source of information about birth control, contraception and pregnancy prevention (Sutton, Brown, Wilson and Klein, 2002), and four out of ten (40%) say they gained ideas for how to talk to their boyfriend or girlfriend about sexual issues from these sources (Kaiser Family Foundation, 1996, 1998). Adolescents also report using media examples to learn sexual and romantic scripts and norms for sexual behaviour (Brown, Childers and Waszak, 1990). Therefore, existing research provides some level of evidence to suggest that sexual content in the media affects adolescents' sexual knowledge, attitudes and behaviour.

Research has demonstrated that young people are heavy consumers of sexually-orientated media including TV, both broadcast and cable channels, videos, movies, magazines and the internet (Brown, 1996). Studies of sexual messages in movies and on television (prime time, soaps and videos have been studied most heavily) have found that there has been an overall increase in the number of portrayals, the amount of talk, and an increase in the explicitness of these portrayals. Furthermore, the television research shows a fairly consistent sexual message across TV genres: most portrayals of sex depict or imply heterosexual intercourse between unmarried adults, reference to sexually transmitted diseases(STDs)/AIDS, pregnancy, or use of contraception.

Over the last 20 years, references to heterosexual intercourse have increased and have become much more explicit, but many of the "messages" have remained relatively unchanged. Talk about sex is more common than physical depictions, and when instances of sexual intercourse occur, they are often implied rather than visually displayed (Kunkel et al, 1996). Only about one in ten of the programmes on TV that include sexual content mention the possible consequences or the need to use contraceptives or protection against STDs. Unintended pregnancies rarely are shown as the outcome of unprotected sex, and STDs other than HIV/AIDS are almost never discussed (Kunkel et al, 2001).

Content of Television Programmes:
The most extensive studies of sexual content in the media to date have been conducted by researchers supported by the Kaiser Family Foundation (U.S based). Kunkel et. al. (1999) investigated the amount and extent of sexual content in the media by selecting a random sample of American TV programmes. A composite week sampling design was used, and ten channels coded, including several different varieties, for example prime time showings. Programmes were coded for talk about sex and sexually related behaviours, and were rated on a severity scale. The researchers found that overall, sexual content, whether talk about sex or actual behaviours, appeared in 56% of programmes. Specifically, 54% of programmes included talk about sex and 23% included sexually-related behaviours. In addition, only 9% of shows that included sexual content mentioned sexual patience, sexual precaution, or the depiction of risks and/or negative consequences of unprotected sexual behaviour.

One content analysis found that sexual content ranging from flirting to sexual intercourse had increased from slightly more than half of TV programmes in 1997-1998 to more than two-thirds of the programmes in a 1999-2000 session. Depiction of intercourse (suggestive or explicit) occurred in one of every ten programmes (Kunkel, Cope-Farrar, Biely, Farinola and Donnerstein, 2001).

Very few studies have looked at the portrayal of sex, positive sexual messages or sexuality in the Irish context, in particular comprehensive analyses of television programmes viewed by Irish adolescents. Furthermore, no Irish studies to date have looked at adolescents' attitudes concerning sex or sexuality content presented in the media. The availability of a body of research that addresses these evidence gaps would provide informative and valuable information which could guide future policy and research.

Research Aim:
Whilst recognising international literature on sexual messages portrayed in a wide range of media, this study is primarily interested in the types of sexual related messages to which Irish teenagers are exposed on T.V. The study will aim to:

For the purposes of this study, sexual content has been defined as any depiction of sexual activity, sexually suggestive behaviour or talk about sex, sexual risks or responsibility, sexual health, or sexuality. The programmes analysed should be those viewed by teenagers between the ages of 15 - 19.

Research Questions:
The study will build on research already conducted in this field, particularly that of relevance to Irish adolescents (i.e. UK studies). The study will address the following research questions:

1. What extent are sexual messages presented in television - frequency of sexual dialogue and sexual behaviours?
2. What is the nature and context of these sexual messages?
3. How explicit are these sexual messages, and how are they communicated?
4. What kind of emphasis is placed on the possible risks or responsibilities of sex in the stories that deal with sexual topics?
5. What kind of positive sexual health messages are presented, and how are these portrayed?

Research Objective:
Detailed quantitative information about the sexual content of television programmes, and the kinds of sex or sexuality related stories teenagers are likely to encounter, and the messages those stories are sending.

Deliverables of research:

Methodology and Sampling Considerations:
Content analysis has been used to systematically document the amount of sexual content found in the media. Most content analyses have concentrated on entertainment television, particularly prime time programming, soap operas, and music videos, but, in recent years, they have expanded to other genres and other media, including talk shows, magazines, advertising, film/movies and news. Definitions of sexual content include verbal references to sexual activity, innuendo, implied sexual activity, and visual presentation.

Research method: A quantitative content analysis research method is required to address research questions one to five. Applicants are asked to propose (1) a sampling design for selecting television programmes, and (2) procedures for measuring and coding sexual content they think most suitable for answering the research questions. However, careful consideration should be given to these two elements as CPA envisages this study being the first in an ongoing series of studies. A series of studies will significantly enhance the level of knowledge about the nature and extent of sexual messages conveyed on Irish television and help track changes over time by applying the identical measures to programming samples gathered across multiple points in time.

Analytical method: Content analysis is the principal technique this study will employ to identify and describe sexual content. The procedures for measuring and coding content should be either those used in existing studies or a new procedure that is carefully constructed in order to make replications possible. The coding system is likely to identify four characteristics of the sexual content: frequency, direction, intensity and space. A range of content areas should be covered, for example (1) planning or sexual responsibilities, such as condoms or birth control methods, (2) consequences or risks of sexual behaviour, such as pregnancy or STDs, (3) sexual or suggestive talk or behaviour, such as flirting or romantic kissing, or (4) sexuality, such as gender expectations. Content categories should be both mutually exclusive and exhaustive. The range of measures and coding framework should be accompanied by basic definitions. The applicant should consider ways of examining the collective theme or pattern of messages a program conveys as well as quantifying the nature and context of sexual portrayals.

Applicants need to suggest and justify appropriate measuring and coding procedures that they would utilise in this research. The rationale for such measurements should be evident and may be informed by measures used in existing research.

Sampling method: The method by which television programmes are selected should be carefully considered. One of the goals of this study is to identify and analyse programmes teenagers are exposed to. The sampling frame of programmes may vary depending on whether programmes are chosen from (1) those normally viewed by teenagers, or (2) time periods teenagers normally watch television. Applicants are asked to propose a sampling method they think most suitable. However, all channels broadcasted on local Irish and cable networks should be considered.

A population of messages to be examined should be identified from a representative sample of television programmes viewed by teenagers. Larger samples are recommended as the inclusion of more programmes across day-parts or days are more likely to be representative of the total population of television programmes viewed by teenagers. The sample strategy will need to consider:

1. the types of programmes viewed by teenagers aged 15-19
2. the number of programmes
3. the number and types of channels
4. time span of viewings (e.g. one week or one months worth of viewings)

Applicants need to suggest a feasible and appropriate sampling strategy of selection of television programmes. The sample size and strategy will need to ensure that the results are robust in findings and applicable in future studies. Applicants should comment on any issues or problems they anticipate with either (1) the selection of programmes viewed by teenagers, and (2) the selection of these programmes broadcasted on local Irish and cable networks.

Focus Group Study:
Applicants may wish to consider a focus group study examining teenagers' attitudes to, and interpretation of sexual content portrayed in the media. Tender submissions that address this are encouraged. The study could be designed in such a way as to allow for teenagers to view a selection of clips containing sexual content from programmes examined in the media analysis. This study would aim to: Identify teenagers' attitudes to, and their interpretation of the sexual content portrayed in television programmes. Research Objectives could include: (1) What are teenagers' attitudes towards the sexual content conveyed in television programmes, and their attitudes towards the role of the media? Does the content affect their sexual beliefs?, (2) How do teenagers interpret these messages, and what types of messages do teenagers believe the television programmes are attempting to deliver?

Budget guidance
The budget available for this study is in the region of €35,000 to €45,000, inclusive of VAT.

Timetable for reporting process
It is expected that this research will take place between 5 - 6 months.

Ethical considerations
Ethical considerations and means of addressing and resolving these need to be addressed in the bid.
Please refer to the Invitation to Tender letter for information relating to expected outputs, reporting arrangements, ethical consideration, terms of reference, contacts and details for submission and content of tender bids. This information is elaborated in section 2.2 of the Invitation to Tender letter.

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